Age at Marriage %28English%29

Age at Marriage %28English%29



1 Pages 1-10

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1.1 Page 1

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Demographic, Health and Social
Implications of Early Marriage
Fa~ily Planning Foundation

1.2 Page 2

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A Study of the Significance of
Age at Marriage in India
What is the impact of age at
marriage on population growth?
How does it affect the health and
mortality of women and children?
What are the factors responsible
for current nuptiality behaviour?
Why the marriage legislation in
India has not produced the desired
results? What is the significance
of age at marriage in determining
the social status of women?
Answers to these and some
other pertinent questions are
sought to be provided in the mono-
graph on "Age at Marriage in
India" prepared by Mr. V.K. Rama-
bhadran, former Director (Evalua-
tion), Family Planning Foundation.
This well-documented in-depth
study of the significance and impli-
cations of the age at marriage -
more particularly of females - in
relation to the demographic curve
of the country as also the health
and well-being of mothers and
their progeny, has special impor-
tance for the family planning pol-
icy makers, demographers, sociolo-
gists, in fact, all those individuals
and organisations involved in the
stupendous task of slowing down
India's population growth rate as
well as socio-economic upliftment
of women.
The assessment of the impact of
early age at marriage on fertility,
mortality, contraception and the
status of women provides a back-
ground for changing marital beha-
viour and encouraging late mar-
riages. It also underlines the need
to build a popular social movement
for proper enforcement of the law
against early marriage. For early
marriage, early pregna ncy and fre-
quent child-bearing are the most
critical factors not only responsi-
ble for high infant mortality but
also for the pattern of fertility.
:his little book seeks to present
the more important findings of the
study in an easy-to-understand
manner for the benefit of all those
concerned about the country's
population problem and its dis-
tressing consequences for society
as a whole.
Harish Khanna
Executive Director
Family Planning Foundation

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Implications of
Early Age at
Marriage
In developing countries like India
with universality of marriage, low
age at marriage and low level of
contraception, fertility differentials
are linked with age at marriage. As
a study in three districts of Rajas-
than reveals there is an inverse
relationship between age at mar-
riage and the number of children
ever born (CEB). For example, the
Lower the Age at Marriage
Higher the Number of Children
Age of Women
(in 1981)
Age at Marriage
No. of Children
Ever Born (CEB)
30-34
17-18
4.5
19-20
3.4
17-18
5.9
19-20
3.8
average number of CEBfor women
aged 30-34 in 1981 was 4.5 for
those married in 17-18 age group,
and 3.4 for those married in 19-20
age group. Likewise, for women
aged 35-39 in 1981 the CEB was
5.9 for those married in 17 -18 and
3.8 for those married in 19-20 age
group. This study infers that age
19 is probably the critical age at
marriage for females which could
influence a fertility decline.
The delay in marriage usual'ly
produces three effects:
i) it postpones age at first birth
(motherhood);
ii) it abridges the child bearing
period (interval between the
first and the last birth), and
iii) it diminishes completed fertil-
ity (children ever born).
It is, however, to be noted that
social and economic factors influ-
ence the age at marriage which in
turn affects fertility, and that socio-
economic factors also directly in-
fl uence ferti Iity.
Later marriage implies a shorter
period of reproductive life exposed
to the possibility of iJregnancy and
a longer interval between genera-
tions which works for reduction in
rates of population growth. At the
same time postponement of mar-
riage by women from age 16 to age
19, for example, or from 18 to 21
would mean longer stay in school
and acquisition of skills for
income-generating jobs, addition
to their own and family's income
and their entering marriage with
greater emotional and physical
maturity to meet the challenge of
family life. On the other hand early
marriage at 15 or 16 would virtu-
ally close all opportunities for
enhancing their status.

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Early Marriage is a Health Hazard
to the Young Girl and her Children
There is sufficient evidence to
show that low age at marriage of
females has adverse consequen-
ces in the matter of mortality and
health both for the mother and
Below 18
21 and above
Below 18
21 and above
I.M.R.
(1978)
156
90
88
46
child. The incidence of child loss is
less for women who marry later
than for those who marry early.
According to the Survey of Causes
of Death carried out by the Regis-
trar General, India (1983), 46 per
cent of maternal deaths are in the
age group 15-24. Apart from high
maternal mortality rate (estimated
to be 418), there is also high mat-
ernal morbidity.
In developing countries neona-
tal and infant mortality related to
mothers under 20 years are 40 to
70 per cent higher than the aver-
age for all mothers. In the rural
areas of India the IMR (Infant Mor-
tality Rate) in 1978 was as high as
156 for girls married below 18,
while it was 90 for girls married at
age 21 and above. A similar trend
is observed in urban areas where
the IMR declined from 88 to 46 in
these ages. In the contrasting
states of Kerala where the IMR
was the lowest (39) and Age at
M,·rriage was the highest (21.9)
and U.P. where the IMR was the
highest (167) and age at marriage
(17.8), infant mortality is distinctly
higher in the marriage age below
18 years, particularly in the rural
areas.
The need to raise the age at mar-
riage in India, particularly in the
Northern States of U.P, Bihar, M.P.
and Rajasthan, arises more impor-
tantly from the health consequen-
ces of early marriage for the
mother as well as the children.

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Nuptiality
Behaviour and
Factors
Responsible for It
The age at marriage data (1981
census) reveals that in large parts
of India the female age at marriage
is low relative to the legal min-
imum age of 18 years and there is
near universality of marriage
which means that over 90 per cent
of females are married in the age
group 25-29. While there has been
virtually no change in the propor-
tion of currently married females
since 1961 (around 46 per cent in
ried before the age 18 in rural
areas while among the younger
women aged less than 20 years,
the percentage is higher at 74.
Similarly, in urban areas, as
against 54 per cent ever-married
before 18 years in all age groups,
the percentage is 73 for women
aged less than 20 years. It implies
that younger women are still mar-
ried off in large numbers before
the statutory minimum of 18 years
All ages
Below 20
All ages
Below 20
rural areas and 43 per cent in
urban areas), there is a discernible
reduction in proportions married
in younger age-groups of 10-14
and 15-19. Yet these trends have
not affected the universality of
marriage with over 95 per cent
rural women and 91 per cent urban
women, married in age group
25-29.
Among the ever married women
of all ages, 64 per cent were mar-
and that the Child Marriage Res-
traint (Amendment) Act of 1978
has not had the desired impact in
this regard. It also underlines the
need for an in-depth study of the
socio-economic and other factors
responsible for this trend with
grave demographic, health and
social implications. What with the
grim prospect of 263 million peo-
ple in the age-group 10-24, enter-
ing the marriage market by 1991.

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Age of women
Belo\\\\ 20
Based on empirical studies of
several Asian countries, three
modernisation processes have
been identified as holding the key
to nuptiality behaviour. The pro-
cesses are: educational develop-
ment, especiallyoffemales, expan-
sion of non-agricultural employ-
ment and urbanisation. Micro and
macro level evidence gathered
through various studies in India by
and large uphold this view.
among females in the youngest
age group of below 20, who were
married at ages 10-11 while in age
group 18-19, conforming to the
legal age at marriage, only 65 per
cent are illiterate.
Analysis of the state level cen-
sus data, results of beaseline sur-
veys and micro-level studies made
in U.P., Karnataka, Orissa and
Rajasthan throw up the following
findings:
Literacy and Age at Marriage
Age at Marriage
10-11
18-19
Literacy
7%
35%
Higher the Educational Level
More Delayed the Marriage
Analysis of the 1981 census
data vis-a-vis education and age at
marriage reveals that at the natio-
nal level median age at marriage
rises both in rural and urban areas
with education. Even the educa-
tional level 'literate but below
middle' (primary education) has
pushed up the median age to 16.9
(from 15.8 for illiterate) in rural
areas and 17.2 (from 16.4 illiter-
ate) in urban areas.
Illiteracy is about 93 per cent
i) Literacy status influences
marriage ages positively;
higher the educational level
more delayed the marriage. As
a general observation primary
schooling delayed marriage by
one year and secondary by a
further two years
ii) Educational status of the wife
IS more effective in raising the
age at marriage than the edu-
cational status of the husband.
iii) The influence of education on
female age at marriage is not
confined to the recent mar-
riages; it had also influenced
the older cohorts of married
women.
The broad concl usion is that
early marriage, particularly in the
rural areas is partly due to the lack
of viable alternative for young girls

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Under conditions prevailing in India apart from formal
education, functionally relevant education even through non-
formal means may trigger off a whole chain of modernisation
effects including the most desirable consequences for female
marital postponement.
in the form of even limited educa-
tional facilities and that under con-
ditions prevailing in India apart
from formal education, function-
ally relevant education even thro-
ugh non-formal means may trigger
off a whole chain of modernisation
effects including the most desira-
ble consequences for female mari-
tal postponement.
Female Non-farm Employment
Raises the age at Marriage
Female employment has been
identified as another major alter-
native to marriage.
According to 1981 census wo-
men constituted only 20 per cent
of main workers. However, in the
critical age group 15-19 (from
which many brides are drawn in
rural areas) the non-workers con-
stitute nearly three-fourths of the
population. On the other hand in
the age group 20-24 for males
(from which many grooms are
drawn) the non-workers constitute
only 21 per cent of the population
with 77 per cent being main work-
ers. It means while the employed
men are ready for marriage, the
large number of unemployed girls
in 15-19 have to seek marriage as
the only alternative to their low
employment status which is fur-
ther compounded by their low
employability status because they
lack education or skill, particularly
in rural areas.
A close look at the occupational
structure reveals that agriculture
accounts for over 80 per cent of
main workers and over 90 per cent
of marginal ,workers I among
females and that there has hardly
been any diversification in the
occupational structure during the
1971-81 decade. Further, the
household industry sector which is
the first alternative to agriculture
for female workers, has not come
up to expectations in expanding
work opportunities for women. In
this context women's employment

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Rajasthan
V.P.
Kerala
Punjab
remains a major social problem
relating to human resources.
State-wise profiles indicate that
states which have low non-farm
employment such as Bihar (8.4 per
cent of main workers), M.P. (7.5
per cent), Rajasthan (11.4 per cent)
and U.P. (12.1 per cent) have more
than 60 per cent of women cur-
rently married in the age group 15-
19. On the other hand, Kerala with
47 per cent and Punjab with 43 per
cent non-farm employment, had
only 14 per cent married in the
age-group 15-19.
Another study examining the
link between occupation and the
female age at marriage shows that
where agricultural labour is the
occupation of wife or husband, the
average female age at marriage is
% of Main Workers
% of currentlymarried
(non-farmoccupations) women(age-group15-19)
8.4
7.5
11.4
12.1
47
43
the lowest - 12.3 years in rural
areas, while in the case of women
who have service as their occupa-
tion, it is significantly higher at 16
years.
Urbanisation and Development
Exert Positive Influence on
Female Age at Marriage
Analysis of census data reveals
that urbanisation has a significant
positive influence on female age at
marriage implying that expansion
of urbanisation, which provides
larger opportunities for non-fami-
lial role and whose modernising
influences help remove the impact
of traditions, will tend to raise
marriage ages. However, it is doubt-
ful whether urbanisation could be
a deliberate policy in the current
context in India. As a via media
creation of 'growth centres' bet-
Vlft'!envillages and cities will be of
great help in checking the undersir-
able outflow of rural population to
already over burdened cities by
providing employment opportuni-
ties and at the same time impart-
ing an urban culture.
Development is another factor
exerting positive influence on age
at marriage. It has been estab-
lished that the age at marriage
increases as the standard of living
index rises.

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Marriage
Legislation Needs
Social Back-up
The Child Marriage RestraintAct
(CMRA) as amended in 1978, rai-
sed the minimum age of marriage
of girls to 18 years and of boys to
21 years. Despite this legislation
coming into force from 1 Oct. 1978,
the census of 1981 recorded a
median age of 16 for rural females
(i.e. 50 per cent currently married
women were below the age of 16
at marriage) and 17.4 for urban
females.
. backed up by measures aimed at
raising the status of women and
creating a favourable social cli-
mate.
Socio-economic improvements
at the grass-roots level in terms of
basics --'-female literacy and gain-
ful employment - can build a cli-
mate in which later marriages
would be acceptable. Among the
developing countries, Malaysia
and Sri Lanka have achieved a
It is not legislation that will cure a popular il~ it is enlightened
public opinion that can do it.
- Gandhiji
The failure of such a significant
social legislation underlines the
importance of what Gandhiji obser-
ved at the time of enactment of
Sarda Act in 1929, "it is not legis-
lation that will cure a popular ill, it
is enlightened public opinion that
can do it".
The point to be emphasised is
that the Minimum Age Legislation
is necessary' but not sufficient in
itself to secure the social objective
of preventing early marriages, par-
ticularly in rural areas. It has to be
sizeable increase in age at mar-
riage as a result of socio-economic
development - education and
employment for females - with-
out any legislation (which came
much later) or even a deliberate
policy intervention.
Since raising age at marriage is
a question of altering not only
individual marital behaviour but
that of a large society in which
young marriages are perpetuated,
there is an over-riding need for
building up a strong enlightened

1.10 Page 10

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Committed strong support to the marriage legislation and
enhancement in the status of women, on the part of national
leadership and policy makers, would give a much-needed shot-in-
the-arm to the public awareness and education programmes in
favour of late marriages.
public opinion through all possible
means - mass media, folk media
and inter-personal communication
at the grass roots with the invol-
vement of official as well as volun-
ta ry agencies. Committed strong
support to the marriage legislation
and enhancement in the status of
women, on the part of national
leadership and policy makers
would give a much-needed shot-
in-the-arm to this public aware-
ness and education programme.
Side by side with building up
awareness and bringing about
rapid social change, particularly
through female education and
inr.ome-generating activity, there
is need for a close and continuous
monitoring of the progress of the
legislation through creation of a
suitable mechanism, over a period
of time, at the field and national
levels. Initially, an experimental
design on marriage registration
could be tried out in 'typical' dis-
tricts in close cooperation with the
District Registrar of. Births and
Deaths. This would help in evolv-
ing a national level monitoring
programme.

2 Pages 11-20

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2.1 Page 11

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Looking into
the Future
The remaining years of this cen-
tury are important in increasing
the age at marriage from the demo-
graphic perspective of attaining
the Net Reproduction Rate of unity.
According to the Population Pro-
jection of the Registrar General,
India, there were 147 million boys
and 139 million girls in the age
group 0-14 in 1986 who would be
entering their reproductive age by
the end of the century and also
look out for employment opportun-
ity. This phenomenon would inten-
sify through 2001. It could be
assumed that the age at marriage
for males would respond to the
exogenous changes, while the age
at marriage of girls would be lar-
gely endogenised in the family set-
up and is therefore a hard-core
problem.
These projections indicate that
while in urban areas there is pos-
sibility of achieving the goal of
legal minimum age of 18 years by
2000AD, itwouldtaketimebeyond
2000 AD to eliminate totally the
incidence of marriages in rural
areas below 18 years. State-wise,
it appears, Bihar, M.P. and Rajas-
than cannot attain the minimum
age in this century while Andhra
Pradesh, Haryana and U.P. may be
nearer that goal if they maintain
the rate of increase achieved in
1971-81.
The future indeed depends on
how a macro-reform like raising
the age of marriage, would pro-
gress in balance with the micro ri-
gidities, particularly of the rural
society.

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How to Reverse
the Trend?
A transition from massive
female illiteracy even to ele-
mentary literacy can change
the early marriage pattern.
Age at marriage is crLicial not
only from the health and demo-
graphic angles but also from the
point of view of raising the status
of women. As such nuptiality pol-
icy should be an essential ingre-
dient of a comprehensive popula-
tion as well as human resource
policy.
The Child Marriage Restraint Act
as amended in 1978 should be
made !flore effective by designat-
ing senior officers to take cogniz-
ance of the offence. For proper
enforcementofthe legal minimum,
a system of registration of mar-
riage needs to be gradually evolved.
A system of close and continu-
ous monitoring needs to be set up
on the lines of the monitoring and
evaluation system in the family
planning programme.
A cO[Tl'p(ehensiveand conscious
socio-economic back-up to the leg-
islation is directly needed. liter-
acy, functionally relevant educa-
tion through non-formal means,
skill improvement, income-genera-
ting labour and security system in
rural areas for unmarried girls have
to be woven together.
Rural female literacy of 35 per
cent appears to be a 'trigger point'
for increasing age at marriage. A
transition from massive female illi-
teracy even to elementary literacy
could change the early marriage
pattern.
An employment policy needs to
be evloved by concentrating on the
development of women-preferred
industries, and ensuring that jobs
are not taken away from men.

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Employment of womel
in non-farm occupa
tions still poses ,
major social problen
relating to human re
sources.
Rural semi-industrial and service
jobs for women, unlike traditional
agricultural activities or house-
work, could provide alternatives to
early marriage.
Apart from using the mass media
to support the legislation, there is
also need to develop persuasive
communication at the grass roots.
The message should not only focus
on the harmful effects of the early
marriage on the girl's health and
risk to the child but also highlight
the availability of viable alterna-
tives to early marriage in rural
areas. National leaders and policy
makers should throw in their ful
weight in building up awarenes
and strong public opinion in favou
of late marriages.
There is need to undertake anc
study experimental designs in tho
field in specially selected sma lie
areas where concentrated input
like ,promotion of literacy, func
tional education, rural women'
cooperatives, etc. could be provi
ded to gauge their impact afte
about two years. In these desigm
baseline data needs to be collecte'
about the marital pattern befor,
and after the experimentc

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intervention.
Further, there is need for prom-
oting social science research in
areas such as the difference in
spousal age, kinds of women-fa-
voured employment contributing
mostto marital delay in rural areas,
alternative social security system
for unmarried rural girls, particu-
larly those who have attained
puberty, incentives-approach to
marital postponement, the way
monetisation of agriculture could
increase the income of young
women.
These short and long term mea-
sures are bound to bring about a
positive change in marital behav-
iour encouraging late marriages
and controlled fertility. This would
produce the most desirable results
in so far as arresting the popula-
tion growth rate and promoting
the health and welfare of women
and children are concerne..d.
Female education and
employment hold the key
to rapid social change in
favour of late marriages.

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Taking an overview one cannot
escape the conclusion that early
marriages are holding the future
of India to ransom. They are not
only aggravating the population
problem with all its unsavoury
ramifications but are also working
havoc with the health and happi-
ness of young mothers and child-
ren - our future generations. The
net result is that all our develop-
mental works, all our efforts to
raise the status of women are nul-
lified.
late marriages and untold misery
caused by early marriages. All have
to act. here and now:
Panches and Sarpanches at
the village level; [Now when
the Panchayati Raj system is
being restored to its pristine
glory, the need for harnessing
it to solve the country's most
vexatious population problem
at the gross-roots level can
hardly be over-emphasised.]
Representatives of town area
committees, Block samitis and
What India needs is Controlled Fertility and Late Marriage.
Fortunately, postponement of marriage and promotion of
contraception are responsive to a common policy packnge of
education, employment and elevation of Status of Women.
This rather grim situation calls
for building up a strong and effec-
tive social movement to create a
climate where marriages are delay-
ed as much as possible, and in any
case they do not take place in con-
travention of the legal limits of 18
years for girls and 21 years for
boys. This is possible only if sin-
cere and sustained action is taken
by enlightened opinion leaders at
all levels and in all strata of society
irrespective of caste, creed and
political affiliations, to inform, edu-
cate and guide the people about
the positive social advantages of
Zila Parishads at the town,
Block and district levels;
MLA's and MP'S attheir respec-
tive constituency level;
National leaders at national
level;
Media people and communica-
tors through their respective
media - folk art and folk music,
small and big newspapers and
magazines, radio and TV.,
group meetings, discussions,
and social gatherings.
Remember, no effort is too big or
too small when the very future of
the nation is at stake.

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Birth Rate:
Total number of live births per
thousand of population in a given
year.
Death Rate:
Total number of deaths of living
persons per thousand of
population in a given year.
Population Growth Rate:
The rate at which population is
increasing (or decreasing) in a
given year due to natural increase
and net migration. expressed as a
percentage of the base population
Infant Mortality Rate: (IMR)
Maternal Mortality Rate:
Numbr of infant dying under one
year of age in a year per
thousand live births of the same
year.
Number of deaths of mothers at
the cime of or during or thirty
days after confinement for every
thousand deliveries (live births
plus still births) in a given year.
Net Reproduction Rate: (NRR)
Average number of daughters
that would be born to a woman if
she experiences the current
fertility and mortality patterns
throughout her reproductive span
(15-49 years).

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Direction
Harish Khanna
Editing & Visualisation
J.L. Saaz
Printing
Mis Veerendra Printers,
New Delhi.
Photographs
Cover Page
Photo unit, Department of Family
Welfare, Ministryof Health & Fam-
ily Welfare.
Page no. 9, 10, 11, 12 & 13
Press Information Bureau, Minis-
try of Information & Broadcasting.

2.8 Page 18

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There can be no doubt that a reduction in the number of
years of mar;ied life in a woman's reproductive cycle would be
dramatically reflected in the number of children she is likely to
bear. This measure was indeed adopted in 1978 when the
legal age of marriage was raised from 15 to 18. BUl, as we well
know, this law has been, from the start, perhaps the most
flouted one in our country, and a large proportion of girls are
married well before the legal age because, while there is little
social pressure against early marriages, our State Govern-
ments are more sensitive to possible vote-losing consequen-
ces than in enforcing the law.
This is, admittedly, a difficult problem but one which must
be faced. Apart from the specific objective of any law, the
continued toleration of its violation by government and public
opinion encourages the disregard and violation of other laws
and undermines the very concept and framework of a society
based on the rule of law.